South-Eastern Europe in the period of the Roman principate (I-III c. AD) - PART 4

South-Eastern Europe in the period of the Roman principate (I-III c. AD) - PART 3

Following the stabilisation of Roman control over Illyricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, attention inevitably turned eastward to the Danubian frontier, where the province of Moesia would emerge. Roman expeditions into Moesia in the 1st century BC originated from Macedonia and aimed less at expanding territory and more at securing the province’s northern frontier, which remained prone to raids by Balkan tribes. These early operations failed to establish lasting Roman dominance north of the Haemus Mountains—until the campaigns of Marcus Licinius Crassus.

In 29–28 BC, Marcus Licinius Crassus, the governor of Macedonia and grandson of the famous triumvir, led a decisive campaign into the Balkans. Responding to a call for aid from the Dentheleti tribe against the Bastarnae, Crassus launched a large offensive that brought significant new territories under Roman control. According to Cassius Dio, he defeated the Dacians and Bastarnae, and conquered the Moesi, Serdi, Maedi, Bessi, Artacii, Getae, and other Balkan tribes. This venture marked the beginning of permanent Roman rule in Moesia and the surrounding regions.

With these conquests, Moesia was now effectively under Roman control, though the region remained volatile. During the reign of Augustus, the northern Dacians repeatedly crossed the Danube when it froze, raiding Roman-held territories and threatening the fragile frontier. In response, Augustus dispatched experienced commanders like Sextus Aelius Catus and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur between AD 1 and 11. Lentulus successfully pushed the Dacians back across the river and established a chain of garrisons along the right bank, laying the foundation for the Danubian limes—a fortified line that would become the empire’s defensive bulwark in the region.

Resistance from local Thracian and Getic tribes persisted into the early years of Roman rule, but the steady presence of the legions and the settlement of Roman veterans began to transform the region. Roman law, language, and customs slowly took root, reshaping the social fabric of Moesia.

The process of annexation unfolded gradually. Initially, the territory was organised as civitas Moesiae et Treballiae, integrating conquered lands into a Roman administrative model while maintaining its status as part of the larger province of Macedonia. It wasn’t until AD 15 that Moesia began to be recognized as a distinct province, though it remained subordinate to Macedonia and Achaea. Only in AD 46 did Moesia achieve full provincial status, reflecting Rome’s growing commitment to its Danubian frontier. The establishment of Moesia allowed Rome to systematically implement its frontier policy: fortifying the river line, building roads, and founding towns to anchor Roman authority.

The military policy in Moesia mirrored that of Illyricum and Pannonia: creating a network of military bases linked by strategic roads. Key legionary bases were established at Oescus (modern Gigen, Bulgaria), where Legio V Macedonica was stationed from the reign of Claudius onward. Contrary to later claims, Oescus was originally a Thracian settlement but was greatly expanded under Roman rule, becoming Colonia Ulpia Oescus under Trajan. Other major military centres included Ratiaria, Singidunum (modern Belgrade), and Viminacium. These garrisons formed the backbone of Roman military presence, supported by auxiliary units recruited from across the empire, including experienced troops from Pannonia and Dalmatia.

The main Danubian road, running parallel to the river, became the lifeline of Roman Moesia. It connected the forts and enabled the rapid movement of troops and supplies. This road also linked Moesia to other key provinces, such as Pannonia to the west and Thrace to the south, integrating it into the wider imperial system. Over time, this infrastructure supported not only military needs but also economic and cultural exchange, fostering the gradual Romanisation of the province.

The Separation of Moesia

Initially, the province’s territory was confined mainly to a narrow band along the southern bank of the Danube. However, with the suppression of local resistance and the consolidation of Roman control, Moesia’s borders expanded. By the late 1st century AD, under Emperor Domitian, the province was divided into Moesia Superior (west) and Moesia Inferior (east), enhancing administrative efficiency and reflecting the province’s growing importance. Domitian also had to contend with renewed Dacian incursions during his reign, leading to military campaigns that reinforced Roman control in the region and ultimately prompted the administrative split.

By the early 2nd century AD, Moesia had become the staging ground for Emperor Trajan’s ambitious campaigns against Dacia. The fortified limes, the legionary bases at Oescus, Durostorum, and Viminacium, and the Danubian road enabled Trajan to mobilise and supply his forces for the Dacian Wars (AD 101–106). These campaigns led to the conquest of Dacia and the expansion of Roman rule north of the Danube. These achievements would have been impossible without the decades-long transformation and stabilisation of Moesia.

Ralitsa Ivanova

Further reading:

At the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, on the site of modern Belgrade, stood Singidunum, one of the principal military and urban centers of the Roman province Moesia Superior. Its position on the imperial frontier, atop a naturally fortified elevation, made it a strategically significant location for the control of both fluvial and terrestrial routes, as well as a point of intersection for diverse cultural influences that converged along the Danube frontier.

Prior to its transformation into a Roman legionary camp and municipium, the area of present-day Belgrade had been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence attests to settlement activity during the Bronze and Iron Ages, while, at the time of the Roman conquest, a Celtic stronghold already existed on the site. The toponym Singidunum predates the Roman occupation: the element Singi- is associated with the Celtic tribe of the Singi, whereas the suffix -dunum (or -dunon), common in Celtic toponymy, denotes a “hill,” “fortress,” or “fortified place”. The name thus literally signified “fortress of the Singi” or “hill of the Singi tribe.” This linguistic structure, attested in numerous other Celtic and Gallo-Roman toponyms (e.g., Lugdunum — modern Lyon, Noviodunum, Camulodunum), confirms the pre-Roman, Celtic origin of the settlement.

When Roman forces advanced north of the Balkans in the 1st century BC, they found these fortifications under the control of the Scordisci. According to Pliny and Strabo, the Scordisci were soon subdued, and during the reign of Emperor Tiberius (early 1st century AD), Singidunum was incorporated into the Roman defensive system on the Danubian limes.

Roman Singidunum occupied a strategically optimal position on a high terrace above the confluence of the Sava and the Danube, where the natural plateau descends steeply toward both rivers. This topographical advantage, allowing for surveillance of the river valleys and crossings, shaped the city’s military and urban development throughout antiquity.

The city plan was approximately rectangular, measuring 560 × 330/380 meters (about 20 hectares), and exhibited all characteristic features of a Roman urban center — a forum, thermae, temples, artisanal workshops, and necropoleis extending along the main communication routes toward Naissus (Niš), Viminacium (Kostolac), and Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica). Epigraphic evidence mentioning municipal magistrates (duumviri, aediles, quaestores) and priests of the imperial cult (flamines Augustales) indicates a well-organized system of local governance and a dynamic religious life.

The legionary fortress (castrum) was situated on the summit of the present-day Upper Town of Kalemegdan, a site naturally defended by steep slopes descending toward the Danube and the Sava. As described by M. Mirković, the camp had the form of an approximately rectangular fortification with ramparts and gates typical of legionary strongholds. Its southern section extended toward today’s Pariska Street and Student Square, where the via principalis likely exited. Within the walls stood standard military structures: the praetorium (commander’s residence), principia (headquarters), officers’ quarters, and storage facilities.

The civilian settlement (canabae legionis) developed around the fortress, primarily to the south and southwest — across the areas of modern Student Park, Dorćol, and the Sava amphitheater. It was inhabited by soldiers’ families, freedmen, craftsmen, and merchants. Archaeological findings from this area attest to stone-built houses, workshops, baths, and numerous funerary monuments aligned along the approach roads. The principal thoroughfare, later developed into the via cardo, extended southward from the camp, approximately following the line of today’s Knez Mihailova Street, connecting the military complex with the civilian nucleus. Based on archaeological research, Serbian archaeologist Marko Popović identified in this zone a residential quarter with workshops, bathing facilities, and sanctuaries dedicated to both Roman and Oriental deities, including Jupiter, Mithras, and Cybele.

Systematic collection and publication of inscriptions began at the end of the 19th century. Following the tradition established by Theodor Mommsen through the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL), the first Serbian epigraphists – Janko Šafarik, Mihailo Valtrović, and later Nikola Vulić – conducted extensive fieldwork and published inscriptions in Spomenik of the Serbian Royal Academy. Their work laid the foundation for the modern critical edition prepared in the 1970s by M. Mirković and S. Dušanić, under the editorship of Fanula Papazoglou.

This volume, devoted to the northwestern section of Moesia Superior (from Singidunum to Mount Kosmaj), encompassed not only the corpus of inscriptions but also a comprehensive treatment of the history of research, topography, settlement patterns, military organization, population, and cults, thereby constituting one of the fundamental contributions to the study of ancient Belgrade.

According to the systematic work of Miroslava Mirković and Slobodan Dušanić, within the series Inscriptions de la Mésie Supérieure I, more than eighty Latin inscriptions from Singidunum and its territory have been recorded. These stone monuments provide invaluable insight into the lives of soldiers, artisans, women, and children, as well as into the local religious practices and social structures.

Most of these monuments are preserved today in the National Museum of Belgrade. Some are known only through early copies – from humanist manuscripts of the 15th–16th centuries (Franciscus Iustinianus, Narentanus Antiquus), through the notes of L. F. Marsigli (1726), to the accurate transcriptions of Janko Šafarik and Nikola Vulić in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A portion of the material was lost during wars or in the process of museum relocations.

Throughout its long and complex history, Singidunum underwent multiple phases of destruction and reconstruction. In Late Antiquity, it became an episcopal see, reflecting its spiritual and administrative prominence within the later Roman Empire. During the period of the Great Migrations (late 4th–early 5th century), part of the population abandoned the settlement, though urban life persisted. Later Byzantine restorations largely followed the Roman urban scheme: the fortress on the summit retained its central position, which enabled the site to evolve in the medieval and, later, modern periods into the city of Belgrade.

Despite repeated devastations, habitation in Singidunum was never fully interrupted. Upon its ancient foundations arose the medieval and subsequently modern Serbian capital. Today, a walk through Kalemegdan retraces the very ground once guarded by Roman legionaries nearly two millennia ago – a space where, in stone, they inscribed the enduring testimony of a city that unites rivers, peoples, and centuries.

Dragana Nikolić

Further reading:

Scupi, a city in the Roman province of Moesia (later Upper Moesia), held the status of a colony – Colonia Flavia Scupinorum – representing the highest form of self-government within the provincial system. It is a typical example of a city of the urbs quadrata type – a newly founded urban settlement with a regular Roman layout, established on a previously uninhabited area. Located about 5 kilometers northwest of modern Skopje, Scupi was the largest Roman city on the territory of present-day North Macedonia and the only one with colony status. Archaeological discoveries confirm that the area was inhabited as early as the Bronze and Iron Ages, though with a five-century break during the early antiquity period. The city’s beginnings are linked to the northward movement of Roman legions in the late 1st century BC, as part of efforts to protect the empire’s borders from barbarian incursions. Although it is assumed that a legionary camp of either Legio V Macedonica or Legio IV Scythica was located there, no firm archaeological or epigraphic evidence has yet been found.

During the rule of the Flavian dynasty (69–96 AD), under Vespasian or Domitian, Scupi was granted the status of a colony – Colonia Flavia Scupinorum – and settled by veterans from several legions (VII Claudia, V Macedonica, V Alaudae, and IV Macedonica). This act transformed the early settlement into a complex urban center with administrative, religious, and public institutions, characteristic of Roman civic culture. In the centuries that followed, Skupi developed into an important administrative, religious, and transit center of Upper Moesia. The city was surrounded by defensive walls forming an irregular quadrilateral, covering an area of about 43 hectares. Based on construction techniques, the first stone fortifications are dated to the reign of Marcus Aurelius (second half of the 2nd century AD) and are associated with the Costoboci invasions around 170 AD.

Fragments of architectural elements of the theatre in Scupi

The theater of Scupi, built on the southwestern slope of Zaichev Rid, stands out as one of the most magnificent structures in the city and the largest Roman theater in the territory of modern North Macedonia. It belongs to the Roman type of theaters, and stylistic features of its marble decoration associate it with the period of Emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD). Within the theater complex, there was probably a small chapel (sacellum) dedicated to the goddess Nemesis, protector of gladiatorial games. Epigraphic evidence also indicates the existence of a macellum (market), as well as temples dedicated to Hercules and Dea Syria.

Administratively, Scupi differed from cities in the province of Macedonia, as it was a Roman military colony enjoying Italian civic rights. The city government consisted of a council of decurions (ordo decurionum) and several magistrates: duumviri (mayors), aediles (officials responsible for public order, buildings, and hygiene), and quaestors (financial officers managing the city’s finances). In addition, there were priests – augur, pontifex, and seviri Augustales – charged with maintaining the imperial cult.

Part of the lapidarium at Scupi

The population was ethnically and socially diverse, composed of veterans, settlers from Italy, Dalmatia, Istria, and Asia Minor, as well as Romanized local inhabitants. Inscriptions confirm the presence of members of prominent senatorial families, such as the Furii, Libonii, and Rufrii, who owned estates and played influential roles in the economic and political life of the region. Their wealth was connected to latifundia – large estates with villas and associated infrastructure – and the exploitation of mines along the route linking Scupi with Thessalonica (via metallica).

Religious life in Scupi was varied and vibrant. The city’s inhabitants worshiped deities such as the Manes, Dea Syria (Atargatis), Serapis, and Zeus Zbelthurd, reflecting a blend of Roman, Eastern, and local cult traditions.

Funerary monuments from the time of the colony’s foundation were typically made of marble or limestone and included stelae, funerary altars (cippus), and sarcophagi. Particularly notable are the funerary altars of Italian style, showing influences from Aquileia and Dalmatia, as well as Asia Minor-type sarcophagi dating from the 2nd to 4th centuries AD.

From the late 3rd century, when Dardania became a separate province, Scupi became its capital. The city suffered from barbarian invasions and was completely destroyed by a powerful earthquake in 518. The importance of Scupi as a Christian center in the province is evidenced by records of Bishop Dacius, who participated in the Council of Nicaea in 325, and Parigorius, who attended the Council of Serdica in 343, as well as by the correspondence between the bishops of Scupi - an anonymous bishop in 424, Ursillus in 458, and John in 494 - and the popes and emperors. Most of the inscriptions found in Scupi are epitaphs in Latin, dated no later than the 4th century, while Christian inscriptions are rare.

Kalina Kuzman Dodevska

Further reading:

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South-Eastern Europe in the period of the Roman principate (I-III c. AD) - PART 5