TYPES OF INSCRIPTIONS
Funerary Inscriptions
Greek funerary inscriptions
In the earliest period, they consist of simple stone slabs or blocks; gradually, they begin to be decorated ‒ with ornaments at the top, with relief or painted images; especially popular are reliefs depicting a funerary banquet and images of a horseman; characteristic are also the reliefs with portrait depictions.
The earliest texts contain only the name of the deceased ‒ the personal name (in the nominative case) and the patronymic (in the genitive), for example: Pausanias, son of Apollonios; more rarely, the name of the deceased appears in the genitive (i.e., ‘the grave/monument of’ is implied). Women are identified either by the name of their father or by the name of their husband, with the clarifying words ΓΥΝΗ ‘wife’ or ΘΥΓΑΤΗΡ ‘daughter’ sometimes added; occasionally both the father and the husband are mentioned. Often, the names of several deceased individuals are inscribed on a single monument, e.g., husband and wife, father and son, brothers. For people from another city, an indication of origin may be added, for example: ‘Crinomenes, son of Oenopides. Dema, (daughter) of Aristocles, from Amphipolis, wife of Crinomenes.’ Gradually (during the Hellenistic and especially the Roman period) the content of the texts began to expand, for example with the addition of laudatory epithets or the farewell ΧΑΙΡΕ / ΧΑΙΡΕΤΕ ‘farewell’ (literally ‘rejoice’). Mainly in the Roman period, the age of the deceased is also indicated (‘lived … years’). Very often the age is rounded to 5 or 10 years (and when it is not rounded, this shows a more special attitude toward the deceased); the indication of an exact age, even including months and days, is done for children. Stating the cause of death is rare. More often, especially for children, an epithet may be added to express the feelings and attitude of the person who erected the monument, e.g., ‘to my sweetest child.’ It is also indicated who erected the monument; a verbal form may be used, but quite often the construction lacks a verb, and at the end of the text the formula ΜΝΗΜΗΣ / ΜΝΕΙΑΣ ΧΑΡΙΝ ‘in memory, as a remembrance’ is added. It is common for a funerary monument to be erected during one’s lifetime; for example, after the death of a family member, a collective tomb monument might be made, including the living members as well, and this is indicated in the inscription. The expression ζῶν καὶ φρονῶν (‘while alive and in sound mind’) is also used, with the person who sets up the inscription stating that he is making the funerary monument ‘also for himself’. It may also be indicated with whose funds the monument was erected, for example ‘from his own means.’ Under the influence of Latin inscriptions, the dedication ‘to the Gods of the Underworld’ (ΘΕΟΙΣ ΚΑΤΑΧΘΟΝΙΟΙΣ), corresponding to the Latin Dis Manibus, may be placed at the beginning of the inscription. On sarcophagus inscriptions, threats of fines are written in case another deceased person is laid inside, or in case of reuse or desecration of the sarcophagus. These fines are owed either to the provincial treasury or to the city funds, and usually to both. Sometimes a reward is also provided for the person who reports the crime to the authorities.
In Late Antique funerary inscriptions, the formula ΕΝΘΑΔΕ ΚΕΙΤΑΙ / ΚΑΤΑΚΕΙΤΑΙ ‘here lies’ is typically used, and the date of death is recorded with the month, number (and day of the week), and the year, indicated by the indiction number and the names of the consuls (and sometimes the regnal year of the emperor).
Latin funerary inscriptions
At the beginning of funerary inscriptions from the 2nd–3rd centuries AD stands the phrase DIS MANIBVS, sometimes DIS MANIBVS SACRVM – “dedicated to the Underworld Gods”; its absence usually indicates that the inscription is earlier. In most cases, DIS MANIBVS is written separately (and in larger letters) in the upper part of the funerary monument, very often abbreviated with the initial letters D M, placed symmetrically on the line.
This is followed by the name of the deceased, which may appear in the nominative, genitive, or dative case.
Next, the age is indicated, and for soldiers and veterans – the years of military service as well. The usual expressions are vixit annos/annis …, militavit (or meruit) annos/annis … — “lived … years, served in the army … years.” Especially for children, months and days are given in addition to the years. For adults, on the other hand, the years are often rounded to 5 or 10. As a rule, the years are written with numerals; spelling them out in words is rare and indicates a more special attitude toward the deceased. In rarer cases, the cause of death may also be mentioned, for example “struck down by illness,” “killed by enemies,” “perished in a fire.”
After that, a phrase meaning “here rests/is buried” may be added – most often hic situs (sita) est, usually abbreviated as H·S·E·.
In most inscriptions, the person who erected the funerary monument is also indicated, using the verbs fecit “made,” posuit “set up,” or faciendum curavit “had it made” (abbreviated F·C·). Since it was common practice for a person to erect a monument for themselves while still alive (for example, upon the death of another family member), this is explicitly stated in the text of the inscription, such as “… while still alive, he made (this) for himself and for his relatives.” When someone else erects the monument, their relationship to the deceased is noted, for example “the son made (this) for his father,” “the husband made (this) for his wife.” Very often, the end of the inscription includes an epithet referring to the deceased, such as bene merenti “to the well-deserving” (usually abbreviated, e.g., B·M·); or an adjective in the superlative degree ‒ piissimo/pientissimo, carissimo/carissimae, dulcissimo. When the monument is erected according to the deceased’s will, this is indicated by the formula ex testamento (fieri iussit) — “(ordered to be made) according to the will,” or, correspondingly, heres “heir” is added to the name of the person who erected the monument. If the burial place cannot be used by the heirs of the deceased, this is stated with the formula H·N·S = h(eredem) n(on) s(equitur) — “(the right to the grave) does not pass to the heir.” Sometimes the dimensions of the burial plot are also indicated: IN·F·P· … IN·A·P· … = in f(ronte) p(edes) …, in a(gro) p(edes) … — “in front … feet, in depth … feet.”
At the end of the inscription, wishes for the deceased may be added, such as sit tibi terra levis (S·T·T·L) (“may the earth rest lightly on you”) or vale/(h)ave (“farewell”).
More detailed information – going beyond the standard formulaic expressions – about the deceased and about the people who erected the monuments is found mostly in verse inscriptions. These may also use set phrases and quotations from well-known poetic works and authors (in Greek inscriptions mainly from Homer, and in Latin ones from Vergil and Ovid), but original thoughts and sincere emotions also frequently appear.
Dedications
These are most often inscribed on altars, plaques with a relief image of the deity, altars, statue bases, columns, and tables for votive offerings. The choice of the monument to be dedicated depends both on local customs and on the traditions of the specific sanctuary.
The main elements of the text are three – 1) the name and epithet(s) of the deity; 2) the name(s) of the dedicant(s); 3) a verbal form or expression indicating the act of dedication; in addition, there may be an indication of the nature of the offering.
Greek
The key elements are the name and epithet of the deity and the name(s) of the dedicant(s); the verbal form (usually ΑΝΕΘΗΚΕ / ΕΘΗΚΕ, “dedicated”) may be omitted. The name of the deity is usually accompanied by epithet(s), which are of two types ‒ local, connected with the specific sanctuary, and functional; cases in which the name of the deity is not mentioned are rare. Epithets or names associated with a particular sanctuary may represent either a local name of a deity or an epithet formed from a toponym. Deities may be called ΘΕΟΣ / ΘΕΑ “god/goddess”, ΚΥΡΙΟΣ / ΚΥΡΙΑ “lord/lady”. Among functional epithets, common ones include ΕΠΗΚΟΟΣ “listening, responsive” and ΣΩΤΗΡ “savior”. Deities traditionally worshipped by the dedicant’s family are described as “the god of the ancestors.” Clarification may also be added about the nature of the dedicated object, e.g., “the statue,” “the altar.” The nature of the dedication is indicated by terms such as ΕΥΧΗ (“prayer, vow”), (ΕΥ)ΧΑΡΙΣΤΗΡΙΟΝ (“thank-offering”), ΔΩΡΟΝ (“gift”). It is also possible for the inscription to specify a particular motive for making the dedication ‒ for example, that it was done at the command of the deity itself (usually appearing in a dream): “according to the command,” “by order of the god,” “according to a dream,” “according to an oracle.”
If a person does not make the dedication alone or in their own name, it is specified with whom or for whom it was set up.
The purpose of the dedication may also be mentioned with a standard expression such as “for salvation,” “for good fortune,” or in more detail, for example, in a dedication to a healing deity, the illness or the affected organ may be specified. A longer account of the circumstances surrounding the dedication is characteristic mainly of verse inscriptions. Many inscriptions are set up in connection with the performance of an office held by the dedicant.
Sometimes the source of the funds for the dedication is also indicated, e.g., “from his own means.”
Latin
The name of the deity is usually given in the dative case and appears first (on reliefs, it is often placed on the upper frame above the relief image). In many cases, it is accompanied by epithet(s) associated either with the specific sanctuary (for example, derived from a toponym) or with the function for which the dedication is made. After the name, sacrum may be added, often abbreviated as S or SAC, e.g., Deo Silvano sacrum ‒ “dedication to the god Silvanus.” Common deity names are typically abbreviated, e.g., I·O·M· = I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) “To Jupiter, Best and Greatest”; D·I·M· = D(eo) I(nvicto) M(ithrae) “To the Unconquered God Mithras.”
The name of the dedicant is written according to the usual rules and is often accompanied by their office or occupation.
The formulas for dedication placed at the end of the text are varied. The simplest are verbal forms and expressions such as dedicavit “dedicated,” dedit “gave,” consecravit “consecrated,” posuit “set up,” donum dedit “gave as a gift,” donum posuit “set up as a gift,” fecit “made,” faciendum curavit “had it made,” poni iussit “ordered it to be erected”; these expressions are very often abbreviated, e.g., D (dedit or dedicavit), D·D (dedit, dedicavit, or donum dedit), P (posuit), F·C (faciendum curavit).
When it needs to be indicated that the dedication was made after a prior vow, formulas such as vovit “vowed,” votum solvit “fulfilled the vow,” ex voto (promisso) posuit “set up according to his/her promise,” or more elaborately, e.g., quod olim voverat ... nunc solvit “what he/she had once vowed, now he/she fulfills,” are used. An extremely common formula (almost always abbreviated) is V·S·L·M = v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) “fulfilled the vow willingly and deservedly.” It is also possible to include a specification of the type of dedicated monument, e.g., signum, statuam “the statue,” aram “the altar,” aram cum sigillo “the altar (i.e., base) with the statue,” etc.
If a person does not make the dedication alone or not solely for their own benefit and in their own name, it is indicated with or for whom it is made ‒ expressions such as pro se et suis “for oneself and one’s own (i.e., for the family),” nomine suo et coniugis “in his/her own name and in the name of his/her spouse” are used.
Formulas expressing the purpose of the dedication include pro salute “for health,” pro felicitate “for good fortune,” pro reditu “for the return.” Very often dedications are made pro salute imperatoris “for the health/well-being of the emperor” or in honorem domus divinae “in honor of the divine (i.e., imperial) house.”
There are also mentions that the dedication was made at the deity’s prompting ‒ ex iussu “by command,” ex visu “according to a vision” (i.e., in a dream), or that the dedicant was somnio admonitus “advised in a dream.” Sometimes the inscription specifies what the deity helped (or was expected to help) the dedicant with, for example: a periculo maris liberatus “saved from danger at sea,” reversus ex expeditione “returned from a military campaign,” valetudine recuperata “after recovering health,” ob victoriam “for victory,” ob honorem “for [holding] an honorary office,” ob sacerdotium “for [holding] a priestly office,” servus vovit liber solvit “made the vow as a slave, fulfilled it as a free person.” The source of funds for the dedication is indicated with expressions such as de suo or de sua pecunia “at one’s own expense.”
Honorific Inscriptions
Honorific inscriptions are most often placed under statues or other types of images; they are erected both by the state and by private individuals. Private individuals often set them up following a decision by the city authorities, which is indicated with expressions such as “by decision of the council and the popular assembly” or “by decision of the decurions (members of the local senate).” In many cases, honorary monuments are erected by private individuals on a site provided by the city authorities; this is indicated by the formula locus datus decreto decurionum ‒ “the place was given by decree of the decurions,” usually abbreviated as L·D·D·D on the last line to make it stand out. The erection of dedicatory monuments by private individuals following official approval was a common practice when the city lacked the funds for the statue and therefore entrusted its erection to a relative or friend of the honored person. In a considerable number of cases, the honored individuals themselves financed the erection of their statue, and in the text this generosity is emphasized as an additional merit, for example, in Latin inscriptions with the phrases honore contentus impendium remisit or honore contentus sua pecunia posuit ‒ “satisfied with the honor shown, he provided the funds/set it up at his own expense.”
The main part of the text of honorific inscriptions consists of the names and offices of the honored person. There may be a verb meaning “erected (a statue of),” “honored,” but it is often omitted, as it is implied; sometimes the subject is also missing in inscriptions erected by the city authorities. The text may contain dating information, for example, “when so-and-so was governor of the province,” “when so-and-so was the first archon (chief city magistrate).” In official inscriptions, it is also specified who was directly responsible for the erection ‒ in Greek inscriptions often introduced with ΕΠΙΜΕΛΟΥΜΕΝΟΥ, in Latin inscriptions with curante “the person in charge (of erecting the statue) was so-and-so.”
For the honored person, the offices they have held or currently hold are listed ‒ in a non so restrictive style and order in Greek inscriptions, and in strict hierarchical order in Latin inscriptions. The career of the honored person with the offices held (cursus honorum) may be presented in ascending or descending order; the lowest offices at the beginning of the career may not be mentioned, as they are implied.
The reason for the honor may be detailed, but very often it is expressed more generally with a standard formula such as ΑΡΕΤΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΕΥΝΟΙΑΣ ΧΑΡΙΝ / ΕΝΕΚΑ “for his virtue and goodwill,” ob merita “for merits,” ad referendam gratiam “to express gratitude,” ob eximiam amorem in patriam “for outstanding love of the homeland.” In inscriptions honoring emperors, erected by administrative officials, the phrase devotus (dicatusque) numini (maiestatique) eius “dedicated and devoted to his (the emperor’s) divinity and majesty” is common.
The expenses for erecting the statue may also be noted with expressions such as ΕΚ ΤΩΝ ΙΔΙΩΝ “at one’s own expense,” ΕΚ ΤΩΝ ΤΗΣ ΠΟΛΕΩΣ “from city funds,” pecunia publica “at public expense.”
Nicolay Sharankov
SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS IN LATIN INSCRIPTIONS
(SIGLA ET ABBREVIATIONES)
A
A annus/annis/annos
A D ante diem
A D A agris dandis adsignandis
ADI adiutor/ Adiutrix (legio)
A(ED) aedilis
A H N P ad heredem non pertinet
A L F/P animo libens fecit/posuit
ANN annos/annis
A S a senatu/ a solo
AQVIL aquilifer
AVG Augustus/augustalis/augur
AVGG Augusti (duo)
AVG L Augusti libertus
AVG N Augustus noster
B
B beneficiarius
B D S M bene de se merenti
BF beneficiarius
BF COS beneficiarius consularis
B M bene merenti/bonae memoriae
C
C centuria/cohors/colonia/curavit/curaverunt
Ͻ › centurio
Ͻ L mulieris libertus
C A curam agens
COH cohors
COL colonia/collega
COL FAB collegium fabrum
COS consul/consularis
C R civis Romanus
CVR curavit/curaverunt
D
D dat/dedit/decreto/defunctus/donum/
D D decreto decurionum/ dono (donum) dedit (dat)/ donis donatus
D D D datum decreto decurionum/dono dedit dedicavit
D D S P dedit de sua pecunia
DEC decurio/decessit
DE S P de sua pecunia
DEV N MQ EIVS devotus numini maiestatique eius
DIC N MQ EIVS dicatus numini maiestatique eius
D I M dis inferis Manibus/deo invicto Mithrae
D M dis Manibus ·
D M I dis Manibus inferis
D M S dis Manibus sacrum/ deo Mithrae sacrum
D N dominus noster
D O M deo optimo maximo
D S de suo
D S B M de se bene meritus
D S D/F de suo dedit/fecit
D S M diis sacrum Manibus
D S S F C de senatus sententia faciundum curavit
E
EQ eques/equester
EQ R eques Romanus
E T ex testamento
EX CONS ex consulto
EX T ex testamento
EX T F I ex testamento fieri iussit
EX T F C ex testamento faciundum curavit
EX T T F l, H F C ex testamento titulum fieri iussit, heres faciundum curavit
EX V ex voto
F
F fecit/fecerunt/filia/filius
F(AC) C(OER)/F C faciundum coeravit
F S ET S fecit sibi et suis
F S ET S L L PQ E fecit sibi et suis libertis libertabus posterisque eorum
FRVM frumentarius
G
G genius/Gemina (legio)
G D N genius domini nostri
G H L genius huius loci
G P R genius populi Romani
H
H hic, haec, etc./heres/hora
H A S F C heres a se faciundum curavit
H B Q hic bene quiescat
H C (E) hic conditus (est)
H F heres fecit/honore functus
H M hoc monumentum/honesta missione/honeste missus
H M ET L S H N S hoc monumentum et locus sepulturae heredem non sequentur
H M M honesta missione missus
H M H N S hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur
H O B Q hic ossa bene quiescant
H P C heres ponendum curavit
H Q hic quiescat
H S E hic situs (-a) est
H S S hic siti (-ae) sunt
I
I D invictus deus/Iupiter Dolichenus
IMP imperator
IN A(GR) P in agro (agrum) p(edes)
IN F(R) P in fronte (frontem) p(edes)
IN S S infra scripta sunt
I O M Iuppiter Optimus Maximus
K
K/ KAL Kalendae
(continues)